A large new study from Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health suggests that when it comes to reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and mortality, the overall nutritional quality of a plant-based diet may be more important than the degree of processing.

The study, presented at NUTRITION 2026 by Dr Xiaowen Wang, investigated whether the health effects of plant-based diets differed according to their level of processing.

Dr Wang and team analysed dietary and health data from three long-running US cohort studies:

• Nurses’ Health Study (1984-2018)
• Nurses’ Health Study II (1991-2021)
• Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (1986-2020)

The analysis included 203,275 adults (160,690 women and 42,585 men) who were free from cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and type 2 diabetes (T2D) at baseline.

Researchers developed six plant-based diet indices that differentiated between healthy and unhealthy plant foods while also accounting for whether foods were ultra-processed (UPF) or non-ultra-processed.

Over the follow-up period, researchers documented:

• 26,209 cases of cardiovascular disease
• 21,006 cases of type 2 diabetes
• 55,493 deaths

Researchers found that overall diet quality was strongly associated with the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and mortality.  Individuals following healthier dietary patterns – regardless of level of processing – experienced better health outcomes, while those consuming poorer-quality diets had higher cardiometabolic disease risks.

Notably, only the unhealthy ultra-processed plant-based diet pattern showed a statistically significant association with increased mortality risk.  Importantly, within healthy and unhealthy categories, the health risks were almost identical regardless of processing classification.

This study challenges the assumption that highly processed foods are inherently detrimental within plant-based eating patterns.  The findings suggest that the health benefits of a plant-based diet depend more on the nutritional quality of the foods chosen than on how processed they are.

This large prospective study indicates that healthy plant-based foods can support cardiometabolic health regardless of their level of processing, whereas poor-quality plant-based diets are associated with less favourable outcomes.

What are Enzymes?

Enzymes are proteins produced by all living organisms.  They are biological catalysts which conduct all biochemical reactions.

This is a natural part of physiological processes essential for growth and allow life.  When your body wants to transform food such as starch in bread or pasta into energy enzymes are used to convert the starch to simple sugars which can be used by your cells. 

Enzymes are efficient, and specific performing typically only one defined reaction over and over again.  The fact that they come from nature means that they act at specific pH and temperature conditions/ranges, which make them sustainable and biodegradable alternatives to chemical processing in the food industry.

Industrial enzymes can be extracted from plants or produced by microbial fermentation and purified.

Why are Enzymes in Food?

Enzymes have been used in food production for thousands of years.  Our early ancestors discovered that cows stomach could turn milk into cheese. 

Today, we use enzymes in food to manufacture of everything from bread, wine, beer, juice and dairy processing and much more besides.

In the bakery industry, different type of enzymes can be used as a natural way to keep bread softer for longer, enhance dough tolerance during processing or allow for reduction the egg content.

Enzymes also enable manufacturers to use local grains like cassava to make beer and make dairy products suitable for those with lactose intolerance.

Sustainability Benefits of Enzymes in Bakery

In the bakery industry, different type of enzymes are a natural way to optimize raw material performance despite varying/seasonal quality, enhancing manufacturing efficiencies, softness, moistness, antistaling or desirably sensory properties of baked goods over extended shelf life, reducing additives and energy usage, food loss and food waste, with sustainability benefits.

A recent environmental footprint estimated calculation found that (www.epa.gov) just 1 loaf of bread releases 1.15kg of CO2 emissions and uses 194L of water, which is equivalent to the same CO2 emissions from fully charging 140 smart phones and 2 average daily showers. 

Delving deeper into food waste, according to United nations environment programme up to 10% of GHG are linked to uneaten food, and 30% of all food produced in wasted, costing the global economy over $900 billion per year.

More especially the various type of bakery enzymes are offering different functionalities. Maltogenic amylase allows to keep bread softer for longer, to extend shelf life, by improving product sensory characteristics and appearance over longer shelf life, prolonging the onset of staling characteristics and reducing likelihood of food being wasted at home.

Xylanases are known to improve dough tolerance during processing. Asparaginase, to make baked good healthier by reducing the acrylamide content.

Some phospholipases allow to successfully reduces egg content by up in fine bakery applications such as muffins, stirred cakes, whipped cakes, croissants, donuts and brioche, with no change in dough handling or crumb structure versus a full egg recipe, eggs being crucial to bakers because of their specific functional properties and unique contribution to finished product sensory attributes: texture, softness, crumb structure, taste, including “binding”, “aeration”, “emulsification” and “colour”.

How Can Enzymes be Used for Nutrition & Health?

Digestive Enzymes – Reducing Lactose Intolerance Symptoms with Lactase

Lactose, the sugar found in dairy products, can cause problems like bloating and other gastrointestinal discomforts in people with lactose intolerance.

Lactose intolerance affects a significant amount of people worldwide, especially in places where dairy farming is not common. The incidence of lactose intolerance can be as high as 75% of the population in these areas.

Enzymes can help lactose intolerant individuals enjoy dairy products with minimal side effects. Lactose is a sugar made of two smaller sugars: galactose and glucose (see figure below). 

These sugars have a greater relative sweetness than lactose meaning that lactose free or low-lactose products that have been made with the lactase enzyme are sweeter in taste than those not treated with lactase. 

In the food industry this can allow dairy products like yoghurt to be made with a reduced amount of added sugar but with the same taste profile.

Lactase is an enzyme that cleaves lactose into these two smaller sugars, neither of which cause the negative side effects of lactose in those with lactose intolerance.  This is why you see the ingredient ‘lactase’ in lactose-free milks, for example.

Digestive Enzymes – Helping Infants Digest Formula

It is recommended by the world health organisation that infants be exclusively breastfed for the first six months of life so as to give the infant the greatest chance of achieving optimal growth, development and health, but for cases where this is not realistic or possible, infant formula is required.

Some infants have a hard time digesting certain types of formula, but enzymes can help in a few ways.

Comfort Protein – Infant Milk Formula (IMF)

Comfort infant formulas are made with partially hydrolysed milk proteins which are marketed as “easier to digest” infant formula made from cows milk. 

These formulas can be produced using natural enzymes, called proteases, which target proteins and are derived from animal, plant or microbial sources. 

Hydrolysis of milk proteins by proteases results in the formation of smaller peptides which are reported to be more readily digested than intact proteins. 

In particular, parents of infants suffering from conditions such as colic, cite the use of comfort protein as reducing the severity of symptoms.

Hypoallergenic Formulas (IMF)

Most common IMFs use cow’s milk as a base, but a small percentage of infants are born with cow’s milk protein allergy (CMPA). 

Formulas sold to address this condition can be divided into two types – those which are extensively hydrolysed (peptide-based) and those which are amino acid based.

Extensively hydrolysed proteins for this application are produced via enzymatic hydrolysis where the protease enzyme extensively breaks down the structure of the whey and/or casein protein to smaller peptides.

From the American Academy of Family Physicians:  “Hypoallergenic formulas contain extensively hydrolyzed proteins that are less likely to stimulate antibody production. Infants with milk protein allergy fed hypoallergenic formula have slightly greater weight gain during the first year than infants fed standard formula. In addition, many infants show improvement in atopic symptoms. A few infants continue to have symptoms despite switching to hypoallergenic formula; nonallergenic amino acid–based formulas are effective for these rare cases.”

Enzymes for the Plant-Based Trend

The market for nutritional beverage is growing and cereal based beverages such as Horlicks, Bournvita, etc. have traditionally been very popular in certain markets.

The plant-based beverage market has continued to grow with milk-alternatives like soy or oat milk.

Enzymes are often used to help make these beverages more acceptable to consumers.  For example, plant-based beverages like oat or rice milk can have poor emulsion stability, meaning products might separate out over their shelf life instead of remaining a consistent mixture.

Enzymes like amylase can help improve stability of the product.  Much like lactase, amylase can also reduce the need for added sugar because the products of starch hydrolysis are sweeter than the starch itself.

If high viscosity is caused by high molecular weight (Mw) beta-glucan, as in the case of a beverage like oat milk, beta-glucanase can be used to make an easier to process, less viscous product.

However, since beta-glucan is the fiber associated with health benefits in oats, cleaving beta glucan with an enzyme would likely reduce the potential health benefit. If health benefits and fiber content are a focus, beta glucanase may not be the best solution.

Making Plant-Based Protein Hydrolysates Taste Better

With the rise in demand for plant-based proteins, there has been an increased demand for inexpensive plant-derived protein hydrolysates, owing to their significant potential in nutritional applications.

Hydrolysed plant protein (HPP) is most commonly produced via the enzymatic hydrolysis of a plant protein source such as soy, wheat, rice, sunflower, potato and alternative pulse proteins, and are used in a wide variety of food applications such as protein fortified bars and beverages.

Protease enzymes are most commonly used in the production of HPPs and under controlled conditions are used maximise protein yields from different plant sources and also to improve taste and sensory attributes.

From a commercial standpoint, plant proteins maintain unique taste attributes, and today’s HPP products are synonymous with bitter, unpleasant tastes often attributed to a high concentration of hydrophobic free amino-acids, smaller peptides and volatile compounds in the HPP mixture.

Enzymatic hydrolysis, both pre- and post-hydrolysis can help to significantly improve these undesirable sensory properties of HPPs.

This article was originally published on 15 September 2020. It was updated 19 June 2023 to reflect new information.

Fibre is very well associated with many health benefits when consumed as part of a healthy and balanced diet.  There are a variety of different sources and types of dietary fibre that have different health benefits, but they can also be used as functional ingredients in foods and beverages.  Dietary fibre is an ingredient that can influence many attributes of the product, such as the texture, succulence, cohesiveness, appearance, and sensory properties.

These unique properties of fibre can improve the sensory properties of many types of foods and beverages.  This can include texture improvements such as providing a firmer bite to a burger, enhancing the product’s processability such as increasing the cooking yield, and improving the nutritional quality due to the inherent nutritional properties.

In many meat and plant-based meat alternative products, other functional ingredients to fibres cannot be neglected or completely replaced.  However, thorough understanding of the functionality of fibres within application allows the improvement of characteristics such as texture, cooking yield, fat reduction, while also adding the health benefit of fibre enrichment to meat and plant-based meat alternative products.  This article will look at these aspects in more detail, focusing mainly on the functional role of fibre in meat and plant-based meat alternatives.

Functional Properties of fibre

Besides their nutritional benefit, dietary fibres provide a range of technological properties when incorporated in food systems.  Some of these are shown in the list below:

• • Water binding – The ability to bind water and swell.
  • Oil binding – The ability to bind oil and swell.
  • Anti-caking – The ability to prevent lump formation in powder materials.
  • Texturizing – The ability to enhance texture properties of food products (e.g. by providing viscosity, thickness, etc.).
  • Bulking agent – The ability to increase the volume in food products and thus increase the sense of satiety, especially in foods designed for weight reduction.
  • Fat mimetic – The ability to mimic (not replace) some of the organoleptic and physical properties of fat molecules while simultaneously providing lower energy values to the food products.
  • Gelling – The ability to thicken and form a gel. This depends on the product’s hydration properties and its ability to form a network

These unique technological properties result in fibres being used across a wide range of food products, from baked goods and confectionary, to dairy and beverages.  And although someone might not think about it at first, fibres are also widely used in meat and plant-based meat alternative products.

Fibre functionality in meat and plant-based meat alternatives

When it comes to meat and plant-based meat alternatives, fibre incorporation can deliver important functional properties while also also improving the nutrition of a product.

One key consideration when using fibres in meat and meat alternative applications is understanding how fibres behave in a complex matrix (proteins, starches, fat, salts, etc.).  As already mentioned, fibre has many unique functional properties, and each property can differ based on various parameters, such as:

• • Fibre source
  • Fibre extraction method
  • Chemical structure, pH, ionic strength
  • Fibre type: Soluble / Insoluble
  • Length of fibre
  • Fibre purity

Adding fibre to foods – how does this impact the product?

Depending on the fibre source (e.g. root vegetables, fruit peels, etc.) and extraction method (e.g. chemical vs microbial methods), different types of fibres can be obtained ¹.

The most common classification divides fibres into soluble and insoluble, based on their solubility in water.  Insoluble fibres consist mostly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, and soluble fibres consist mostly of pentosanes, pectins, gums, and mucilage^2,3.

Insoluble fibres like bamboo or wheat have good water and oil holding capacity which will help in firming up the texture of cooked products. Water and oil binding properties are related to chemical structure, ionic strength, pH and particle size of fiber ⁴.  This feature can be helpful in the development of meat and plant-based burgers or sausages where we want to achieve a firmer structure by binding the extra water in the system. Depending on the extraction process, some fibres might still contain higher levels of starch that can gel upon heating and further enhance texture properties.

Another example is Psyllium, a soluble fibre that dissolves in water and can help with increasing viscosity of liquid systems such as brines. When going through a heat treatment process, psyllium also forms a gel-like structure that cannot be achieved with the use of insoluble fibres such as bamboo, wheat, or oat fibre.

The impact of water quantity on fibre functionality

Incorporating fibre in a food product can result in a higher or lower water (and/or oil) uptake.  As with many other ingredients, fibre will “compete” for the water in the system and this can also influence the functionality of some other ingredients, for example proteins and hydrocolloids.  One challenge in using fibres in plant-based meat alternatives is that very high concentrations of fibres can bind high amounts of water, making it less accessible to other ingredients.

If fibres are used in excess without enough hydration, the network formation between starches, proteins, and hydrocolloids can be disrupted, resulting in a very dry and perhaps too firm product.  Using fibres at very high quantities can also bring an additional and sometimes undesirable taste impact.  Flavour can be a challenge with plant-based products in general, as discussed in Flavour Masking Challenges in Plant-Based Meat Alternatives – Kerry Health And Nutrition Institute.

Benefits of adding fibre to meat and plant-based meat alternatives

As we have already briefly discussed above, fibre incorporation in meat and plant-based burgers and sausages can bring some application challenges.  However, a thorough understanding of different types of fibre and their functionality in application can result in very positive outcomes, such as:

• • • Increasing the yields of cooked minced products like burgers and sausages
    • Giving burgers a firmer bite with a more cohesive structure
    • Fat reducing properties while also keeping burgers and sausages juicy
    • Binding and upholding the water in fresh or cooked minced products

The plant-based meat and dairy alternative markets are growing and innovating to capitalize on global consumer demands driven by health, wellness, and sustainability interests. Plant-based is no longer a niche market for those with dietary restrictions and as a result, expectation for convenience, taste, quality maintenance and shelf-life are table stakes.

Consumers are thinking about food safety and food waste in plant-based meat alternatives

Consumer concern for food safety has increased, with 60% of consumers saying they are more concerned about food safety due to the COVID-19 pandemic (2021 Kerry Proprietary Insights– Food Safety Fundamentals). Specifically, 49% of consumers are concerned about food safety in plant-based meat alternatives (2021 Kerry Proprietary Insights – Food Safety Fundamentals). Plant-based meat and dairy alternatives topped the list in terms of concerns, outranked only by fresh and processed meat. This increased concern can be attributed to consumer unfamiliarity with plant-based products. Consumers have limited experience with plant-based meat alternatives, which can result in inconsistent quality and taste. Product recalls are another factor with plant-based products, with media publicity raising public awareness and concern.

Sustainability and avoiding artificial preservatives are also top-of-mind when it comes to plant-based products. “No artificial preservatives” is a top claim consumers look for when purchasing plant-based products (Innova 2021). Consumers are paying closer attention to product labels than ever before. In a previous consumer research survey, 64% of plant-based consumers stated they read nutritional labels (Kerry Proprietary Insights 2019 – Meat: The Challenge).

Finding the balance with sustainability (reduced food waste) and ingredients that align with consumer’s health and wellness goals can be challenging. Now is the time for plant-based producers to rise to this challenge as increased market growth continues.

Plant-based meat alternatives have different food safety challenges than meat and require different solutions

Extensive food safety data, shelf-life data, and predictive models for food protection exist for meat and poultry products, but the same cannot be said for novel plant-based foods. It’s important to understand the technical challenges to formulate safe and quality plant-based meat alternatives. These technical challenges and considerations can include:

1. Plant-based ingredients have different levels and forms of macronutrients (carbohydrate, fat, protein) than their animal counterparts. For instance, the primary carbohydrate in milk is lactose, in meat it’s glycogen, and in pea, soy, and mushroom it’s various starches and oligosaccharides. This can lead to variation in the types and resultant levels of microorganisms able to thrive in the product. This means that threshold levels for what is considered “spoilage” (e.g. 10⁶ CFU/g) traditionally agreed upon for meat and poultry products may not be appropriate for plant-based products. In a survey of commercially available U.S. plant-based meats, starting bacterial populations varied from non-detectable to >10⁷ CFU/g at the time of purchase (Stafl 2020). This level of variability between products is significant and further emphasizes that there is more we need to understand about these products.
2. The array of ingredients used in plant-based foods can bring different microbial loads. Plant-based products typically have higher diversity in their ingredient lists than animal products, which consist mainly of one major raw ingredient (e.g. milk, beef). Including ingredients with high microbial loads (e.g. yeast extract, spices) to mimic meat flavor can introduce different bacteria into plant-based meat alternatives than those traditionally found in animal products.
3. The U.S. regulatory bodies governing plant-based foods and animal-based meats differ (FDA and USDA, respectively). With the FDA, a minimum cooking temperature of 135°F is suggested. For animal-based meats, the USDA recommends a minimum cooking temperature of 160°F for beef products and 165°F for poultry products. This could lead to confusion or inconsistent “best practices” being carried into consumer homes, with some consumers treating plant-based meats like meat and some like other foods. Manufacturers must therefore educate on what “best practice” is for their protein. Cooking to temperatures 145-165°F was shown to kill Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens at equal rates in beef- and plant-based burgers, suggesting cooking guidance for animal products could be applicable to plant-based analogs.
4. Many legacy technologies (curing, smoking, carcass washing, fermentation) used by meat and poultry processors have not been vetted or are non-transferrable to plant-based meat alternatives. Nevertheless, some learnings from meat can be applied to their plant-based counterparts. For example, ground or ground/formed products (i.e. products with additional handling) will have higher microbial counts than “whole muscle” products.

From an industry perspective, ingredient suppliers are often testing antimicrobial ingredient efficacy and product shelf-life in a lab environment which may not correctly mimic the specific production environment factors that are impacting a plant-based meat alternative’s ability to meet its shelf-life and safety goals. This means that microorganisms impacting the antimicrobial ingredient efficacy and plant-based shelf life may differ from findings based on lab or pilot-plant produced product trials. Product manufactures should consider testing in their production environment early in the product development process.

Learn more about unique food protection challenges and solutions for plant-based foods in our webinar Reducing Food Waste: Optimising Safety and Sustainability

The solution is an integrated approach

Taking an integrated approach to food protection in plant-based products is critical as these products continue to become mainstream. A science-backed approach to formulation with application and substrate-specific hurdles to avoid early spoilage and food safety risks is key as consumers demand quality and convenience.

This means understanding the specific microbes a plant-based meat is exposed to from ingredients or during production, the packaging used for a specific product and how well it offers shelf life protection, and selecting the appropriate ingredients that can solve these unique challenges.

Ensuring food safety is at the core of new product development will always be in the consumer’s best interest and will lend well to market success for plant-based meat manufacturers.

The use of plant-based proteins has been growing around the world in the food and beverage market in recent years, especially for use in meat analogues.

However, the protein sources used in these foods can bring unpleasant tastes such as bitter, earthy, beany, astringent, and green which have become major obstacles for consumers as well as for food manufacturers.  Reducing the off-taste of different plant-based proteins is more complicated than it seems, but understanding how to do so is a key to helping plant-based foods thrive in mainstream markets.

The growth of plant-based meat alternatives can be linked to health.  Over the years, meat consumption’s repeated link to disease like cancer in studies and media headlines has caused many people to eat less meat.

Pea protein continues to be a popular choice of plant protein in meat alternatives.  The main reason for this is their high protein content, as well as the low saturated fat and high fiber content.

As the plant protein trend continues, both consumers and manufacturers look towards new and innovative sources for their food and beverage products.  Among the plant-based proteins, lentil, chickpea, rice, fava, hemp and potato are rapidly growing in interest.

What Affects the Off-Tastes of a Plant Protein?

• • Amount of protein in the product
  • Type of protein used
  • Extraction process: pH, temperature, processing time
  • Precipitation process: centrifugation conditions, fermentation microorganisms used, etc.
  • Drying temperature
  • Consumer storage and preparation conditions

Understanding the source of off-tastes is the first step in properly masking them.  Typical plant-based protein off-tastes include: beany, bitter, cardboardy and chalky.

There might also be unpleasant perceptions around aroma, mouthfeel, and astringency.

The off-tastes can be associated with varying amino acid profiles which are derived from plant-based proteins.  They all have unique, inherent off-tastes along with green aftertaste depending on the plant source.

The amount of plant-based proteins used, the types of protein used, and  the protein extraction/processing/drying methods all play critical roles in generating the types of off-tastes perceived in the finished application.

Starting at the raw material, the type of protein and its serving size both dramatically contribute to off-tastes.  It’s then important to take into account how the plant protein has been extracted, precipitated, and dried from the manufacturer.

During extraction, the pH, temperature, processing time, and the types of treatment chemicals used can all contribute to off-notes.  During precipitation, the sedimentation method, centrifuge condition (rpm, flow rate, operation time) and, if fermentation is involved, the type of microorganisms used, can all contribute to off-notes as well.

During drying, the temperature (inlet and outlet) of the spray dryer and the drying methods (freeze drying, drum drying and etc.) can contribute to off-notes.

In summary, the proprietary process that a manufacturer is using to produce the plant-based proteins will contribute its own unique off-taste.

To further complicate the matter, there are a number of challenges for the developer when formulating with plant-based proteins such as different product formats, consumer’s cooking methods, storage conditions of the finished products, working with multiple suppliers with different off-note challenges and batch to batch off-taste variation.

The Principles of Plant-Based Protein Flavour Masking

To mask multidimensional off-tastes, a multidisciplinary approach is required.

During the manufacturing process, off-flavouring molecules (e.g. specific amino acids) can be removed using physical or chemical treatments such as soaking, thermal treatment, germination, enzymatic treatment or solvent extraction.

Another option is to mask off-taste using making agents.  A major challenge is the increase in demand for natural and organic masking agents.

Claims such as natural, halal, kosher, non-GMO, and organic make it difficult to use many traditional or artificial flavouring agents.

To develop clean labelled flavour masking agents, an understanding of analytical chemistry and sensory science for volatile and non-volatile compounds are required.

By understanding the flavour chemistry mechanisms, one is in a better position to correlate the off-tastes to critical flavour compounds as well as to enable to the development of effective flavour masking solutions.

For example, prolamin coating is a known method for bitter taste masking.  Prolamin is a plant storage protein which is mainly found in the seeds of cereal grains such as oat and rice and accounts for about 5-10 % of the total proteins in those plants.

Manufacturers and flavour companies could produce a clean labelled flavour masking agent through extraction, separation, and purification of prolamin-rich fractionation.

Traditionally, addition of sugars, salts, and acids are used for suppressing the inherent off-taste through trial and error.

However, understanding the chemistry and source of off-notes can help the masking process be more time efficient and better for health, without requiring excessive use of sugars or salts that are linked to poor health.

In the article “Active Ageing – Why is Protein So Important?”, we showed how greater protein intakes at ages 50+ can fight the natural loss of muscle mass that comes with ageing, helping people keep active lifestyles later into life than if they didn’t consume adequate protein. Although plant proteins are seen as key to the future of the planet, they may have some limitations for supporting muscle health as we age. How can we improve plant proteins to maximize benefits for healthy ageing?

A study by Houston et al. (2008) showed that ageing adults who had a daily protein intake of 1.1 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight (around 88g per day for an 80kg male) lost 40% less muscle over the course of three years when compared to those who were consuming 0.8g/kg BW (around 64g per day for an 80kg male).

Let’s look at the science of plant proteins and muscle health, and how plant proteins could be optimised for active ageing.

Not all proteins are the same when it comes to healthy ageing

Plant proteins are often missing important amino acids or can be harder to digest

Most plant-based proteins are lower in certain essential amino acids than animal-based proteins and can also be harder to digest. This is reflected in the figure below, which uses a score called PDCAAS to represent the amino acid content of different proteins relative to the needs of the human body. Protein quality can also be measured using a score called DIAAS, which measures the amount of amino acids absorbed by the small intestine after protein is consumed.

What this chart shows is that consuming the same amount of whey protein compared to wheat protein will not result in the same amount of amino acids being absorbed into the body. In this example, the whey protein would provide all of the necessary amino acids for adequate muscle maintenance, whereas consuming the same amount of wheat protein would result in a lack of some of the amino acids the body needs.

When it comes to active ageing, this means plant proteins may be less efficient at activating muscle growth and repair and this must be considered when making recommendations for active ageing. For example, this article discusses the importance of leucine in activating muscle growth and repair. However, wheat protein has 37% less leucine than the same amount of whey protein (Herreman et al., 2020).

Plant proteins can be limited in their ability to stimulate muscle growth and repair in older individuals

The limited effectiveness of  plant proteins to stimulate the muscle protein synthesis system, when compared to animal-derived protein, was shown by Gorissen et al. (2016) in a study where the ability of 35g of whey, casein, or wheat protein to stimulate muscle protein synthesis was measured in 60 healthy older men (70 -72 years old).

The results from the study, shown in the figure above, show that 35g of wheat protein had little to no impact on muscle protein synthesis beyond the baseline rate (i.e., resting rate before a meal).The subjects who consumed whey or casein proteins (which are animal derived) showed an increase in muscle synthetic response. The higher response to the consumption of the animal-derived whey and casein proteins is attributable to the greater content of essential amino acids, and higher overall digestibility which is reflected directly in their protein quality values: wheat=0.48, whey=0.85 and casein=1.17, as measured by DIAAS (Herreman et al., 2020).

The participants needed to eat almost twice as much wheat protein (60g) to see the same response in muscle protein synthesis as 35g of whey or casein. This would be a difficult amount of protein to eat in one sitting, especially in older individuals where diminished appetite is common. Another consideration is the environmental impact of growing the quantity of plant protein required to maintain this increased level of consumption which could counteract some of the benefits attributed to switching from animal protein to plant protein.

How can we improve the ability of plant proteins to support muscle health during ageing?

Choose the right protein source

Plant proteins with high protein quality scores are a good place to start when it comes to active ageing. Soy protein has a DIAAS value of 0.9, which is higher than most other plant sources. Soy protein has been shown to efficiently meet the body’s need to form new muscle but some negative perceptions around soy’s role in health, many of which are unwarranted, has led some consumers to stop consuming soy protein and search for other alternatives.

Pea protein (DIAAS value of 0.71) and rice protein (DIAAS value of 0.47) have become more prevalent and application of these ingredients is increasing over recent years. Emerging plant proteins of nutritional interest also include potato (DIAAS value of 1), pseudo-cereals (such as quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat), legumes (lentils, chickpeas and lupin) and oilseeds (canola, rapeseed and hemp) due to their levels of essential amino acids (Herreman et al., 2020; Martínez-Villaluenga et al., 2020). Mostly, methionine, cysteine, lysine and leucine are four essential amino acids that cause low DIAAS values for plant proteins and, therefore, limit their nutritional quality (Lonnie et al., 2018).  Much scientific research has been conducted in this area to identify plant protein sources that are more nutritionally complete and have similar levels of these essential amino acids to that of soy and animal-derived proteins.

An alternative to finding a single source of plant protein which can act as complete source of nutrition for the healthy growth and maintenance of muscle in ageing individuals is to modify the physical, chemical or functional nature of plant proteins to optimise the effect they have on muscle growth and repair.

Improve digestibility via processing

One of the major limitations preventing plant proteins from having a high protein quality score is their limited digestibility and bioavailability. Within plants, proteins are usually encased in fibre-rich husks or layers that are very difficult for the body to digest, limiting our access to the protein when we eat it. Additionally, plants contain a range of bio-compounds, termed phytochemicals, which slow or inhibit protein digestion (Lonnie et al., 2018).

Physical processes such as cooking (i.e. heating), extrusion, drying, and enzymatic hydrolysis have all been shown to increase the digestibility of numerous plant proteins (Sá et al., 2019). For example, processing a soy flour into a soy protein isolate increases the PDCAAS score from 0.86 to 1.0. These processes can degrade the bio-compounds that limit digestibility or change the structure of the proteins to make them more accessible to the digestive enzymes in the intestine. These physical processing treatments (i.e. heating, wet fractionation, dry fractionation, drying, etc.,) are commonly used in the enrichment and isolation of plant proteins to produce protein-rich flours (e.g. protein concentrates or isolates), which results in the a large improvement in digestibility.

Blend different plant proteins together to improve amino acid profiles

Since many plant proteins are lacking in just a few essential amino acids, such as cereals being low in lysine and legumes being low in methionine, different plant protein sources can be blended to account for the other’s “amino acid weakness” so to speak. The right blend of rice and pea protein will have sufficient amounts of both lysine and methionine, creating a “complete” protein that is more efficient, gram for gram, at delivering amino acids to our muscles than either protein alone.

Plant-animal protein blends are also a possibility, since the plant-based market has expanded beyond vegans and vegetarians to flexitarians or those just looking to eat more plant-based foods. Blends of plant and animal proteins have already seen some use to enhance the functionality (e.g. solubility, taste, texture) of plant proteins in foods and beverages. A series of studies have tested the ability of milk protein, soy protein and a milk-soy protein blend to stimulate protein synthesis after exercise in both older men and young adults. Results from these studies showed that the muscle protein synthesis rates were higher and remained higher for a longer period of time for the milk-soy protein blend (Borack et al., 2016; Reidy et al., 2014, 2013), suggesting possible health benefits in consuming a plant-animal blend of protein. More research would be needed to fully understand how different protein blends interact and their potential health benefits.

Increase leucine content of plant protein

As mentioned earlier, the amino acid leucine has an important role in activating muscle growth and repair. Many plant proteins contain around 20-30% less leucine than animal proteins, although there are a few plants high in leucine, such as corn, soy, and potato (Herreman et al., 2020).  It stands to reason, then, that adding leucine to plant proteins or breeding plants to contain higher levels of leucine might improve their ability to promote active ageing.

A study by Wall et al. (2013) found that the addition of crystalline leucine (2.5g) to a 20g serving of casein had a greater effect on protein synthesis compared to the consumption of 20g of casein alone. Although this study used animal-sourced protein, it shows that addition of leucine can help overcome the reduced sensitivity of the mTOR system (responsible for initiating muscle growth and repair) that is seen during ageing. A study done in mice found that adding leucine to a wheat protein to match the leucine content typically found in whey protein led to a similar ability to stimulate muscle growth compared to whey (Norton et al., 2012).

Conclusion

To promote active ageing it is key that not only the right quantity of protein is consumed but the quality of the protein should also be considered. There are actionable strategies such as processing, protein blending, or targeting leucine content that can improve the ability of plant proteins to promote active ageing while also addressing growing concerns over the environmental impact of animal proteins.

 
 
Addressing sustainable nutrition is central to the future of the food and beverage industry.

Many companies are transforming their strategies to improve measures such as water use, carbon emissions, animal welfare, and food waste while also addressing societal challenges such as obesity and malnutrition.

However, addressing sustainable nutrition can often come with unique taste and mouthfeel challenges.

The phrase “the least nutritious food is the one that goes uneaten” emphasises the importance of understanding taste science as a tool to achieve sustainable nutrition strategies.

Sugar reduction and plant-based diets are two major focus areas of innovation in sustainable nutrition.

In this webinar, learn about:

• The science of flavour modulation and how it can help achieve sustainable nutrition goals
• How flavour modulation can account for taste and mouthfeel challenges in reduced sugar applications
• Strategies to understand and account for unique challenges of different plant protein sources
• How to bring this science to life in examples from the beverage market

Sustainable Nutrition: Sugar Reduction

Producing one kilogram of sugar cane requires 1,110 litres of water and results in 0.42kg of CO2 emissions.  This means that sugar reduction is not just important for improving health, but is also important in developing products that are better for the planet.

However, reducing sugar affects not only the sweetness of a beverage, but also its mouthfeel.  Alternative solutions to sugar often come with detectable flavour off-notes.

Learning how to account for each of these challenges in sugar reduction is essential to meeting the taste expectations of consumers.

Sustainable Nutrition: Plant Proteins

The popularity of plant-based diets and use of plant protein is continually rising, leading to tremendous growth in markets like alternative dairy.  This is both due to the health halo of plant-based foods, as well as the positive impact plant-based diets can have on the environment.

Different types of plant proteins are entering the market daily, but each plant protein comes with unique taste and mouthfeel challenges depending on the plant from which they are derived, where they’re grown, and how they’re processed.

Understanding the science of accounting for challenges specific to each ingredient being used can be a great advantage in product development.

Food Protection is Key to a Sustainable Future

Food protection and sustainability go hand-in-hand, and audacious innovation is key to minimizing food waste.

A staggering one-third of food is wasted at an annual cost of $940bn to the global economy.  The number of people chronically under-nourished in 2019 is almost 690 million and this figure is set to be much higher in 2020¹.

Distribution limitations, food safety and quality issues, along with misconceptions over when food is spoiled contribute to inefficiencies & food loss.  The COVID pandemic heightened awareness of the complex nature of our global food supply chain.

Consumers are also becoming increasingly aware of the environmental and societal impact of the origin of their food, driving a desire for more sustainable choices.

Food manufacturers are increasingly looking to protective ingredient solutions to enhance safety, extend shelf life as well as help achieve their food waste reduction goals.

Food protection strategies and mechanisms differ by food type, stage in the manufacturing process or supply chain as well as conformance to regulatory requirements.

In this webinar, our experts explore ways to reduce waste, prioritise food safety & quality while addressing consumer demands for sustainable food choices.

Key Takeaways from the full-length webinar recording

• Where food is lost and wasted?
• How to reduce food waste and maintain food safety & quality
• Prevention strategies against pathogenic contamination of food, the top reason for food recalls
• The future of sustainable food

Watch the full recording

During the early phases of the plant-based trend, many products received a free pass on nutrient content or ingredient labels. The novelty of being ‘plant-based’ was enough, and products during this time focused on creative new ways to deliver alternatives to animal-derived foods, riding the coattails of the strong health halo consumers associate with plant-based foods. However, nutrition is becoming more and more critical to address when formulating plant-based foods.

Now that the trend is becoming a mainstay in the global food economy, these foods and beverages are no longer getting a free pass on nutrition. In the United States, for example, health and nutrition are the top two reasons consumers purchase plant-based cheese, yogurt, or ice cream and health is ranked third for plant-based meat alternatives (Winning with Plant-based, Kerry Proprietary Research 2020).

Studies are also beginning to show that people who replace animal-based foods with plant-based alternatives can end up decreasing their intake of important nutrients while increasing their intake of nutrients linked to disease like saturated fat, sodium, and sugar. These studies emphasize the importance of addressing nutrients beyond protein for this trend.

As a result, the nutrition attributes of plant-based foods and beverages are under more scrutiny worldwide. We talked to our nutrition, food science, and marketing experts across the globe to understand the challenges in plant-based nutrition and keys to success for the future.

Common nutrition challenges when formulating plant-based foods and beverages

Choosing the right protein source

There are a lot of considerations that go into choosing the protein source for a plant-based product from the multitude of options available. Supply chain, consumer perception, taste, flexibility in formulation, sustainability, and nutrition can all be deciding factors in whether to choose soy, pea, sunflower, hemp, chickpea, rice, and so on.

For nutrition, protein quantity and quality matter are the main things to consider. Most plant proteins are missing specific amino acids the human body needs, and this will differ depending on source. Plants are generally low in methionine (e.g. beans, nuts and seeds), lysine (e.g. grains like wheat), or tryptophan (e.g. corn), and higher in non-essential amino acids arginine, glycine, alanine and serine.

This, along with digestibility, mean many plant proteins have different protein quality ‘scores’. You can see some examples below, but for more information check out our article “Nutrition Benefits of Plant Protein Taking Root with Consumers”.

Lengthy ingredient declarations

When making plant-based alternatives to dairy or meat, it’s often necessary to use many ingredients to build the same taste, texture, and functionality that you’d see in a dairy-based milk or a beef patty. This makes sense in some respects, because something like cow’s milk is made up of many different proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and other compounds when it’s produced by a cow.

A product must have the right taste and texture to be appealing and taste good, but the challenge is that long ingredient labels can be overwhelming or not preferred by consumers. The average plant-based cheese has 11 ingredients while traditional cheese has only four (Winning with Plant-based, Kerry Proprietary Research 2020), for example.

Salt and sugar content

Salt (in plant-based meat alternatives) and sugar (in plant-based dairy alternatives or beverages) can be a major nutrition concern for two key reasons. The first is that it takes away from the consumer appeal of a plant-based product. If health and nutrition are the top reasons why a consumer would choose a plant-based yogurt, then it should deliver on that expectation of healthy and not be abnormally high in sugar. The second is the impact adding sugar or salt can have on product labels, especially in parts of the world where front-of-pack labeling systems call out high sugar or salt levels on a product.

Many countries in Latin America have warnings on foods that contain high levels of salt or sugar. The Nutri-Score system continues to spread across Europe, among other calorie-reduction initiatives, so high salt and sugar levels can give foods unfavorable front-of-pack ratings in those countries, as well.

Sugar or salt are often used to build taste in plant-based products that have challenges compared to their animal-based counterparts, but it is important to remember the reason why consumers choose plant-based foods in the first place and to make sure foods are delivering on the expectation of health.

“The ultimate goal  is to have a product which delivers an equal or better nutritional profile to their meat equivalent. Currently, many products are delivering a “less healthy” product due to the addition of high levels of fat and salt in order to meet the taste and mouthfeel requirements.” – Nicky Dear, Business Development Director for Plant Protein, Kerry Europe & Russia

Dairy and meat are sources of important nutrients that plant-based alternatives may lack

Dairy and meat contribute important nutrients to the diet, including vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, protein, and potassium. Many meat or dairy alternatives do not consider the nutrient content of the foods they are replacing, which can have an impact on people making changes to their diet to include more plant-based options.

For example, dairy is the #1 contributor of vitamin D and calcium in the diet of people in the United States and in Canada, and a major contributor of many nutrients to the diets of those living in Europe.. These are key nutrients for health and are already under-consumed in the US. If plant-based dairy alternatives do not deliver similar amounts of calcium or vitamin D, then a plant-based alternative could actually be less healthy for a consumer than the animal-based version. As a result, it is not delivering on the reason why the consumer chose the plant-based alternative in the first place.

A key challenge for formulating plant-based foods and beverages, then, is to think about the nutrition of the food the alternative is replacing.

“To deliver on consumer expectations, ‘plant-based’ should offer the same nutritional quality of animal-based foods in terms of nutrients like protein, vitamins, and minerals.” – Denise Wilkes, Nutrition Scientist, Kerry Latin America

Opportunities for improving nutrition of when formulating plant-based foods and beverages

Offer nutrients beyond protein

“A major opportunity is pairing the nutrition of plants, like fiber, vitamins, and minerals you’d see in vegetables, grains, and fruit, with improved plant-based protein – taking the best of both and combining them to make a truly healthy product” – Genny Tan, MSc, Business Development Manager, Kerry Asia Pacific

For meat and dairy alternatives, consider the nutrition of the food that’s being replaced. Dairy is a key source of vitamin D, potassium, vitamin A, protein, iodine, and calcium in the diet of many people across the globe, so plant-based dairy alternatives should strive to match those nutrient contributions. Iron, zinc, and B vitamins are important to consider for plant-based meat alternatives, alongside protein.

There are many nutrients that are harder to get enough of when consuming more plant-based foods. The article “Nutrition for Plant-based Diets: Managing Nutrient Intake and Bioavailability” is a great resource for which nutrients to consider for plant-based foods.

Another option is to offer a new nutrition benefit, rather than match that of the animal-based food. For example, a plant-based milk alternative made from oat might offer a serving of whole grains and some fiber. Most people in developed countries do not consume enough whole grains or fiber, so the product can still deliver on the expectation of ‘healthy’ without having to be identical in nutrition to milk from cows.

Keep ingredient declarations short by using multi-functional ingredients that offer nutrition and help with taste and texture.

Some fibers offer nutrition benefits but can also bind ingredients together in a bar or thicken a beverage. By being diligent about the selection of each ingredient, you can maximize the effectiveness of each one to keep the ingredient label short when formulating plant-based foods.

Innovation by suppliers in this area is ongoing and will be key for the future of the plant-based trend. Artificial intelligence is being used more often to screen plant sources for unique properties, such as mimicking the behavior of dairy-based proteins to make plant-based chees more authentic. Finding unique ways to process whole plant ingredients, like oat flour, to improve their functionality in foods and beverages while still delivering nutrition can make plant-based offerings more appealing to both consumers and product developers.

Keep sodium and sugar low to avoid front-of-pack warnings and improve health

Sugar and salt are important for overcoming some of the taste challenges in plant-based foods, but using too much can prevent foods from delivering on consumer expectations for plant-based foods to be healthy.

Unfortunately, there is no 1-1 replacement for sodium chloride in foods. “Challenges and Opportunities in Sodium Reduction” is a great resource to learn more about balancing sodium content.

Many options exist to reduce sugar. Taste modulators, low-calorie sweeteners, or intense flavors are all possibilities. Our webinar recording “Sugar Reduction: Formulating for Success” is a place to hear nutrition and formulation experts talk about the challenges and solutions for sugar reduction.

In this webinar, learn:

• How we can optimize plant based protein for taste and nutrition – what we do and don’t know about healthy diets and the role of protein sources
• How we can optimize new plant-based proteins for the environment – highlighting the trade-offs and unknowns of plant-based protein development
• Which new protein sources have the most promise? – addressing the limitations of a few ‘hot’ sources and highlighting a few under-explored but high-potential options

Watch the full recording.

Plant-based alternatives are perceived as being a healthier and more environmentally friendly protein source and can play a key role in reducing the environmental footprint of food production systems.

However, this should not overshadow that the over-reliance on a limited number of crops can cause issues such as water scarcity, deforestation and biodiversity loss in some parts of the world.

Plant-based protein can provide complete amino acid nutrition when consumed as part of a balanced diet.

As plant-based foods are introduced as snacks or indulgence foods, there is a need for transparency in their health credentials – products which are highly refined, or high in fat, sugar, salt or artificial preservatives may not retain the benefits of eating plant-based.

The above issues are key considerations to ensure the hoped-for potential of a plant-based future, can indeed, become a reality.

Soy has received more attention in the past few years due to the growing popularity of plant protein and plant-based diets.

However, there have also been mixed messages about soy in the media over the past few decades, which leaves many people confused about soy’s role in health.

“Is soy unhealthy or healthy?” is the common question this article will answer based on recent science.

What is Soy?

Soy is a plant that originated in Asia and is now grown in many places around the globe.

The plant’s beans (the soybeans) can be eaten on their own (like edamame) or used to make soy foods (like tofu, miso, tempeh, soy milk and soy sauce).

Soy flour and protein are also added to many prepared foods, from breads to breakfast cereals to energy bars.

Soy contains high amounts of isoflavones, which are phytonutrients. Phytonutrients are compounds found in plants that have actions in our body, but are not vitamins or minerals.

Isoflavones belong to a group of substances called phytoestrogens (plant oestrogens).  As the name implies, they can have certain actions in our body that are similar to the human hormone oestrogen, but with much weaker effects.

Because oestrogen can play a role in breast cancer development and survival, there have been many questions raised about the risks and benefits of diets high in soy.

Is Soy Unhealthy or Healthy?

The main takeaway from published research is that soy is a nutritious food.

Science shows that typical consumption of soy (1-2 servings of soy-based foods or drinks per day) in a balanced diet is unlikely to cause harm, and may provide health benefits, to the general public.

Soy as a food is:

• Low in calories and saturated fat
• Rich in high quality protein, especially among plant protein sources
• High in fibre

Just 100 grams of raw soybean (less than half of a cup) contains (USDA Food Composition Database):

• 13 grams of protein
• 4 grams of dietary fibre
• 3 grams of polyunsaturated fatty acids
• 20% daily value of calcium and iron
• 48% daily value of vitamin C
• 18% daily value of potassium

Dietary guidelines around the world encourage most of these are nutrients in the diet, solidifying soy’s role in a healthy diet.

These traits make soy a great food to include in a balanced diet.

In the sections below, we review the specific roles soy has in health.

It is important to note that, although research shows that consuming soy can improve some health outcomes, soy is considered an allergen and would be inappropriate to consume for those with a diagnosed allergy to soy.

Soy as a Plant Protein Option

Soy is a healthy source of plant protein for most people.

When it comes to choosing a plant protein source, protein quality is one of the key deciding factors.

Protein quality is a measure of how the amino acid content of a protein measures to what the human body needs, as well as how digestible that protein is.

As shown in the graph below, soy is one of the few plant-based proteins that is equivalent in quality to animal-based proteins.

This is because soy contains all nine essential amino acids in significant amounts.

This can be useful for vegans, as other vegan sources of protein are often low in the essential amino acids lysine and methionine.

It can also be helpful in achieving protein claims in certain parts of the world.  For this reason, soy is often a great choice for a plant-based protein in foods and beverages.

Soy, Oestrogen and Cancer

• Overall evidence from human studies shows that consuming soy doesn’t increase the risk of cancer.
• Recent research has found that consuming 1-2 portions of soy per day does not cause any harm for breast cancer survivors.
• Soy is considered to be safe for men to consume and does not affect testosterone concentrations.

What is the relationship between soy and development of breast cancer?

It is not likely that eating moderate amounts of soy foods increases the risk of breast cancer.

The majority of high-quality studies and analyses have found that eating soy foods does not increase risk, even when eaten at levels much higher than those typically consumed in countries like the US(Trock 2006, Wu 2008).

Many studies suggest that soy may help protect against breast cancer (Trock 2006, Wu 2008).

Results from an analysis that combined findings from multiple studies in Asian populations found that soy may have a protective effect on breast cancer incidence.

However, when the same analyses were done in studies of US and other Western populations, there was no link between soy and breast cancer risk (Wu 2013).

It seems the benefit only comes with a pattern of intake that is seen in most Asian countries, where women begin eating soy early in life and eat it in amounts many times greater than typically seen in the US.

In Japan, for example, soy intake ranges from 38 g to around 78 g per day, equivalent to 26 to 54 mg isoflavones.  In the US, soy intake ranges from less than 1.5 to 4.3 g per day, or 1 mg to 3 mg isoflavones (Nagata 2010).

As a breast cancer survivor, is soy safe?

Current studies suggest that eating moderate amounts of soy foods is safe for breast cancer survivors (Shu 2009, Cassileth 2012, Nechuta 2012).

Evidence suggests that a diet high in soy may improve survival and lower the risk of recurrence in women with breast cancer. The benefits don’t appear to be limited to Asian populations, either.

One analysis combined data from three large, long-running studies of survivors from both Asian and Western countries.

It found that women who ate at least 10 mg of soy isoflavones per day after a breast cancer diagnosis had a 25 percent lower risk of recurrence compared to those eating less than 4 mg soy isoflavones per day (Nechuta 2012).

An analysis of 6235 breast cancer survivors found that, after 9.4 years after diagnosis, soy intake did not increase risk of mortality.

The study found that those with the highest soy consumption had a trend toward reduced risk of mortality, although these results were not statistically significant (Zhang 2017).

Soy and Heart Health

Research has shown soy intake  has a role in reducing LDL and total cholesterol, both of which are outcomes linked to improved heart health.

A scientific review of 46 studies on soy’s role in heart health was published in 2019 (Mejia 2019).

In the study, researchers found that consuming soy protein at a dose of ~25 grams per day led to a decrease in LDL cholesterol of 4.76 mg/dL (3-4%) and a decrease in total cholesterol of 6.41 mg/dL over 6 weeks, which could be considered a clinically significant reduction.

Around 75% of the studies reviewed showed a positive effect for consuming soy protein, according to the researchers.

This review is important in helping solidify the role of soy protein in heart health and counter the unwarranted negative perception of soy among many consumers.

Plant-based diets are becoming increasingly popular, but not all sources of nutrients are the same.

Animal-based foods like milk or meat are rich sources of certain essential nutrients that are easily absorbed by the human body.

These same nutrients are present in many plants but can sometimes be less available to the human body to digest and absorb.

Therefore, nutrient bioavailability must be considered when consuming a plant-based diet.  Many factors can affect nutrient bioavailability such as anti-nutrients[1] like oxalates, phytates, and tannins; cooking and processing methods; and factors in the human body

The nutrients of special concern in plant-based diets are (click to jump to that nutrient on the page):

• Calcium
• Protein
• Vitamin D
• Iron
• Zinc
• Vitamin B₁₂
• Vitamin A
• Omega-3 fats/a-linoleic acid
• Iodine

What Does Bioavailability Mean?

The European Food Information Council (EUFIC) defines bioavailability as “the proportion of a nutrient that is absorbed from the diet and used for normal body functions”[2].

Everything food that is eaten needs to be digested and absorbed in the intestine, and the presence of some compounds in plants can make that process more difficult for the body.

For example, antinutrients can block digestive enzymes from reaching parts of a food to be digested.

Oxalic acid is a molecule that plants produce to bind extra calcium within the plant.  This molecule helps the plant function properly, but it also means that when we eat the plant, the calcium is harder for the human body to digest and absorb.  In this example, the calcium would have a low bioavailability.

Calcium

Plant-based Sources

Plant sources that are naturally rich in bioavailable calcium are limited[3],[4].  Commonly recommended plant sources of calcium include kale, legumes, figs, bok choy, and broccoli.

However, the quantity and bioavailability of calcium within these foods is far lower than dairy products or calcium fortified foods[5],[6].

For example, the EPIC-Oxford cohort observed that vegans had inadequate intakes of calcium, approximately half the mean intake level of non-vegetarians[7].

The presence of oxalic acid, or oxalate, reduces calcium bioavailability[8].  Oxalic acid, which is present in many calcium rich plant foods, particularly leafy vegetables[9], binds to calcium to form oxalate, which is not very well absorbed across the gut[10].

Spinach is a renowned example of a food high in calcium, yet absorption is very low due to the oxalate content.

Turnip greens have a similar calcium level but lower oxalate content, thus absorption is significantly higher than from spinach[11].

Grains and legumes, which in general make up a substantial part of a plant-based diet, are high in phytates, which bind calcium strongly and these complexes are insoluble in the small intestine, making them hard to digest and absorb.

It is estimated that 32% of calcium from dairy-based foods is absorbed, but only 5% of calcium from spinach is absorbed.

Improving Bioavailability 

Studies have shown reducing phytates levels significantly increases calcium absorption from grains, pulses and legumes[12],[13].

Tannins and fibre can also negatively affect calcium bioavailability.  In vitro tests have shown that germinating and de-hulling cowpeas, lentils or chickpeas to reduce tannin and fibre levels can significantly increase calcium bioavailability[14].

Factors in the human body can also influence calcium bioavailability.  Calcium is absorbed across the gut by vitamin D dependent active transport and facilitated diffusion.

Therefore, an individual’s vitamin D levels can affect calcium absorption.  Factors such as sex, age, and individual calcium stores affect the rate of facilitated diffusion.

The lower a person’s calcium stores, the more the gut will absorb this nutrient, but this ability decreases with age[15].

To summarise, bioavailability of calcium in a plant-based diet is not optimum mainly due to the quantity and presence of innate inhibitors.

Cooking or processing plants to remove antinutrients can improve bioavailability, and some plant-based sources of calcium are more bioavailable than others.

However, it is commonly suggested that people who do not consume animal products, particularly dairy, should eat foods fortified with calcium or take a calcium and vitamin D supplement to meet the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for this mineral[16],[17].

Protein

Plant-based vs and animal-based

The most obvious concern regarding protein in plant-based diets is that sources are generally limited in one or more essential amino acids that cannot be made by the human body.

Therefore, plant-sourced proteins are often referred to as ‘incomplete’. This is contrary to animal derived protein sources, which contain complete combinations of essential amino acids.

The most common limited essential amino acids in plant-based diets are lysine (mainly limited in cereals), methionine (legumes, nuts and seeds), tryptophan (cereals) and cysteine (legumes)[18].

Protein Complementation

Protein complementation, the combination of vegetable proteins to get all of the amino acids that are essential for the body, is the most effective way to meet protein needs when consuming a plant-based diet[19].

Individuals who eat a variety of plant protein sources such as legumes, nuts, grains, and seeds in enough quantities can meet optimum protein needs through plant sources alone.

Interestingly, protein complementation is not required for each meal, as the body has the capability of storing amino acids[20],[21].

Table 1. Examples of Protein Complementation[22],[23]

However, the amino acid content is not the only limitation to plant protein bioavailability.

The presence of other components such as fibre, tannins, and phytates can reduce protein digestibility, thus making it more difficult for the body to utilise the amino acids.

Vitamin D

Sources

The human body acquires vitamin D by two methods: (1) vitamin D is produced in the skin via UV rays from sunlight and (2) intake from the diet.

There are two forms of vitamin D: vitamin D₃ (active form) and vitamin D₂.

Vitamin D₃ is considerably more bioavailable than the plant source vitamin D₂, which means vitamin D₃ is more effective than vitamin D₂ at raising serum 25(OH)D concentrations, which is an important molecule for the body to actively absorb calcium[24].

Vitamin D₃ is produced by human skin in the presence of ultraviolet light from the sun, or sourced from animal products are rich in vitamin D₃, whereas plant sources contain vitamin D₂ only[25],[26].

Vitamin D levels of Vegans and Non-Vegetarians

The EPIC-Oxford cohort reported the average vitamin D intakes of vegans were approximately 73% lower than non-vegetarians[27].

Vitamin D deficiency is evident within the European population at concerning rates of prevalence[28]. Recent national UK surveys identified 1 in 5 people with low vitamin D levels (serum levels below 25 nmol/L)[29].

Individuals that derive vitamin D from sunlight and a plant-based diet alone will unlikely meet the RDA for vitamin D, especially during winter.

The Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) advises to consume fortified foods and supplements to meet adequate vitamin D requirements[30].

More recently, England’s national health service (NHS) extended their recommendation of taking a daily supplement containing 10 micrograms vitamin D to the entire UK population.

This is to counteract the risk of getting less sun exposure due to current measures enforced by UK government to keep people in their homes to control the spread of Covid-19[31].

Iron

The WHO describes iron deficiency as the most common and widespread nutritional disorder in the world[32].  It is prevalent in developing countries where diets are predominantly plant-based.

Deficiency is a major issue due to a significant amount of the population having high iron needs such as women of childbearing age, combined with the low bioavailability of iron in available foods.

Haem Iron vs Non-Haem Iron

Iron is present in two forms: haem and non-haem iron.

Haem iron is more readily absorbed across the gut compared to non-haem iron[33].  Red meat and other animal derived foods are rich sources of haem iron[34].

Plant sources contain non-haem iron only[35] and include foods such as green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, and grains.

Iron bioavailability can vary significantly due to inhibitors within the same or other foods in a meal[36].

Phytates, which are complexes found in legumes, grains, oil seeds and nuts, are arguably the most potent inhibitors to non-haem iron absorption[37].

Phytates form insoluble complexes in the gut, reducing iron bioavailability considerably[38].

Increasing Iron Bioavailability

Many studies have shown that common cooking and preparation methods such as fermenting, germinating and de-hulling legumes, and malting cereals can reduce phytate levels and, hence, increase iron bioavailability from these foods[39].

Phenolic compounds such as tannins and polyphenols, which are abundant in tea and coffee, also inhibit iron absorption.

Avoiding drinking tea and coffee within two hours of consuming a meal rich in iron is recommended for individuals with low iron status[40],[41],[42].

Nutrient-nutrient interactions can also affect bioavailability.  For instance, calcium is another inhibitor of iron bioavailability, due to competition for absorption across the intestinal wall.

This is more often observed when calcium and iron are part of the same meal and calcium quantity is high[43].

On the other hand, foods rich in vitamin C can increase plant-based iron absorption[44] because this vitamin binds to non-haem iron to form a chelate that is soluble and digestible within the small intestine.

However, it is important to note that cooking vitamin C-rich foods at a high temperature can destroy some of the vitamin C present in foods, reducing its ability to improve iron absorption[45],[46].

There is evidence to suggest individuals can maintain adequate iron stores without consuming animal derived foods, provided effective planning of meals to reduce the presence of inhibitors and increase enhancers is applied[47],[48].

This approach takes careful management, and the prevalence of iron deficiency globally would suggest fortification and supplementation are supported, especially for menstruating women[49].

Zinc

Zinc deficiency is prevalent globally, particularly for developing countries that consume a primarily plant-based diet[50].  This is mainly due to the low bioavailability of zinc in plant foods rather than a lack of plant zinc sources[51].

The EPIC-Oxford cohort reported that average zinc intakes of vegans were approximately 20% lower than non-vegetarians[52].

In this study, even non-vegetarians had zinc intakes that were below the RDA, suggesting that plant-based eaters might be at an even higher risk of deficiency due to the low bioavailability of plant-based zinc[53].

However, the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada expressed no considerable concern for vegetarians and inadequate zinc intakes in their position paper on vegetarian diets in 2003[54].

Plant-based Zinc Bioavailability

In research studies, zinc bioavailability from plant-based diets is often measured alongside iron.  In general, good quality plant-based diets predominantly consist of whole grains and legumes, which are rich sources of zinc.

As with non-haem iron, phytic acid has a significant inhibitory effect on zinc absorption[55],[56].  However, processing methods that can increase the activity of phytate degrading enzymes counteract this considerably.

Processes such as heating, germination, soaking, and fermentation of legumes and grains increase zinc bioavailability, provided the optimum pH is achieved.

Enzymes for degrading phytates work best in an acidic pH environment for cereals and neutral or alkaline for some legumes[57].

The high fibre content in whole grains and legumes inhibit zinc absorption but preparation methods like de-hulling, pressure-cooking, and fermentation can breakdown the fibre and enhance zinc bioavailability[58],[59].

There are studies suggesting that consuming a meal that is both high in protein and zinc has a positive effect on zinc bioavailability[60],[61],[62].

Although bioavailability of zinc in plant-based diets is low, with prudent cooking and meal planning, it is possible to meet adequate body needs.

Vitamin B₁₂

The main dietary sources of Vitamin B₁₂ are products derived from ruminants, such as cows, because microorganisms present in the digestive tracts of ruminants produce this nutrient^[63].

Vitamin B₁₂ is generally not present in plant foods, but fortified breakfast cereals are a readily available source of vitamin B₁₂ with high bioavailability for vegetarians.

This aligns with the EPIC-Oxford cohort observation that on average vegans consumed approximately 93% less vitamin B₁₂ than meat eaters[64].

However, inadequate vitamin B₁₂ quantities in plant-based diets are widely acknowledged and individuals following a plant-based diet are advised to consume foods fortified with vitamin B₁₂ and to take a supplement[65],[66],[67].

Vitamin B₁₂ absorption depends on two compounds produced in the stomach: (i) a protein called “intrinsic factor” (IF) and (ii) gastric acid.

The ability of the stomach to produce these compounds functionality declines with age, thus the ability to absorb vitamin B₁₂ reduces over time[68].

Vitamin B₁₂ is typically added to foods and supplements in its free form, meaning gastric acid is not required to make this type of vitamin B₁₂ absorbable.

However, the IF is at capacity at only 1-2 mcg vitamin B₁₂, and absorption decreases considerably then[69].  Therefore, vitamin B₁₂ is best absorbed in small quantities.

To ensure adequate intake individuals following a plant-based diet should eat vitamin B₁₂ fortified foods on more than one occasion throughout the day[70].

Vitamin A

Sources

Vitamin A deficiency is a major issue in developing counties.

There are two forms of vitamin A available in the human diet; preformed vitamin A, for example retinol, and provitamin A carotenoids.  Animal derived products such as liver, fish oils, milk, and eggs are rich in preformed vitamin A.

Both provitamin A carotenoids and preformed vitamin A must be metabolised before use by the body[71].

The most abundant and efficiently converted carotenoid in plant-based diets is beta-Carotene, and provides fruits and vegetables, such as mangos, oranges, carrots, and beetroot, with a yellow/orange/red colour[72].

Conversion of beta-Carotene to retinol is not very efficient in the body; therefore, the daily requirement of beta-Carotene is considerably higher than the RDA for vitamin A[73].

Hence, RDAs for vitamin A are given as retinol activity equivalents (RAE) to account for the different bioactivities of retinol and provitamin A carotenoids.  One mcg RAE is equivalent to 1 mcg retinol and 12 mcg dietary beta-Carotene[74].

Vitamin A Bioavailability

However, a healthy plant-based diet is abundant in fruit and vegetables that are rich in beta-Carotene.

Therefore, meeting the required amount is feasible[75], unless part of a population that depends on a staple diet of poor vitamin A source grain, such as rice.

Cooking methods can increase the bioavailability of carotenoids, particularly heating in a little fat/oil[76]^,[77] or adding acidulants or antioxidant spices such as lime, tamarind, onion or turmeric[78].

Although beta-Carotene bioavailability is lower than vitamin A, this can be overcome with a varied diet of fruit and vegetables and specific cooking processes.

Essential Fatty Acids

Omega-6 and Omega-3 fatty acids are both essential for the human body, meaning they need to be consumed in the diet to support adequate amounts in the body.

The long chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are key nutrients for optimum health and development.

They contribute to many functions in the body such as normal brain and eye development and maintenance of cardiovascular health[79].

Oily fish are the richest source of these fatty acids, while plant-based diets are low in these nutrients[80].

The current UK dietary recommendation for essential fatty acid intake is to eat at least two portions of fish a week, one of which should be oily[81].

For some individuals, fish may not be part of a plant-based diet; therefore, levels of these fatty acids are generally sub-optimal.

Plant-Based Sources 

The body can convert a plant sourced omega-3 fatty acid, a-linoleic acid (ALA) to EPA and DHA, however the conversion efficacy is low[82].

Good quality plant-based diets are high in ALA. Rich sources include chia seeds, flaxseeds, hemp seeds, and rapeseed oil[83],[84].

However, bioavailability of ALA is reduced by the presence of the omega-6 fatty acid linoleic acid (LA), which is also abundant in plant-based foods.

Sources of LA include sunflower oil, sesame oil, almonds, and cashews[85]. LA competes with ALA for enzymes needed to convert ALA to EPA and DHA[86].

Therefore, good quality plant-based diets will aim to have a ratio of 1:3 omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids in the diet and avoid them within the same meal[87].

Protein, calcium, biotin, magnesium and zinc can increase ALA bioavailability[88],[89], and a good quality plant-based diet is sufficient in these nutrients.

According to the American Dietetic Association, a sufficient intake of ALA in the diet is adequate to meet EPA and DHA needs; however, if an individual has increased needs or poor conversion then a direct source such as DHA-rich microalgae is advised[90].

EPA and DHA supplementation is a controversial topic, as there were concerns regarding the safety of over consumption, however the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has concluded 5g of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids raise no safety concerns for adults[91].

Iodine

Iodine is an essential trace element imperative for brain development, normal growth and metabolism[92].  Plant foods can be insufficient and unreliable iodine sources[93].

Adequate iodine intake is a concern for people who follow a plant-based diet. Iodised salt policies were implemented in various countries across the globe to eradicate deficiency.

However, recommendations to reduce salt intake to support heart health also mean reducing iodine intake.  Most salt used in packaged foods is not iodised.

Iodine in Plant-Based Diets

In the US, Ireland, UK, and most of Europe, the main source of iodine is from milk and milk products, followed by fish and meat.

The high content in milk is a result of iodine addition in cow feed and iodine-containing disinfectants used during milking[94].

Therefore, it is important to note that vegetarians who swap dairy milk to a plant-based alternative may be at risk of inadequate iodine intake.

Furthermore, a study conducted by the University of Surrey reported that organic milk was 42% lower in iodine than conventional milk[95].

Seaweed is a very rich source of iodine, particularly kelp.  However, the iodine content can be too high, and excessive iodine intake can have negative health effects.

For this reason, it is advised to limit seaweed consumption to once a week, particularly if you are pregnant[96].

There is limited research investigating the bioavailability of iodine in plant-based diets, although it appears to be high[97].

However, most literature papers investigating vegan diets highlight iodine as a nutrient at risk of inadequate intakes[98],[99],[100].

Summary of Bioavailability for Plant-Based Nutrients

Conclusion

Plant sources of certain nutrients have a significantly lower quantity and bioavailability compared with animal derived foods.

Many factors can affect nutrient bioavailability including the presence of anti-nutrients; cooking and processing methods; host factors; and nutrient-nutrient interactions.

Bioavailability is an important factor when evaluating the quality of a diet because it has a substantial effect on the amount of nutrients available to the body for important functions.

Therefore, rating foods and diets on nutrient quantities alone is not fully reflective of nutritional quality.

It is important to note that plant-based diets can meet the nutritional needs of an individual, provided they are good quality and supplemented with specific nutrients, if needed[101] [102].

Did you know older adults need much more protein than younger adults to achieve the same rate of muscle growth?

Maintaining muscle mass as we age is key for staying active and independent, and is one of the main considerations for ‘healthy ageing’.

This webinar reviews the state of the science on protein for ageing, and looks at other emerging scientific evidence on plant-based diets, cognition, and more to find creative ways to address needs of healthy agers through product formulation.

Dietary fibre has become an important functional ingredient in recent times due to growing consumer interest in the many health benefits of fibre touted by the scientific community (Anderson 2009).

Fibre has been recently defined by the FDA as “non-digestible soluble and insoluble carbohydrates (with three or more monomeric units) and lignin that are intrinsic and intact in plants; isolated or synthetic non-digestible carbohydrates (with three or more monomeric units) determined by the FDA to have physiological effects that are beneficial to human health.”

Here, the monomeric units refer to individual sugar molecules.  Current food trends point strongly to dietary fibre due to its versatility as a food ingredient, connection with weight management and digestive wellness, and association with the concept of natural.

Fibres play an important role in gastrointestinal health, with new scientific findings into the effect the fibre on bowel movements, cardiovascular health, blood glucose metabolism, and the microbiome constantly adding to the growing evidence that fibre is a critical component to a healthy diet (Vuksan 2008, Pereira 2004, Giacco 2000, Maslowski 2011).

Sources of Fibres

Dietary fibres are typically derived from the indigestible parts of plant materials and made up of long repeating chains of sugars.  The most common fibres are from the exterior husk of cereals and grains, which contain the insoluble fibres cellulose and lignin.

Both cellulose and lignin are main components of most plants and can be found in the tough, fibrous materials of plant-based products. Plants use these fibres to protect themselves. Wood is an example of a material made from cellulose and lignin, but these fibres are also a main part of the skin of fruits and vegetables.

The edible interior of the seeds contains mostly digestible starch, with some fraction of resistant starch.  These resistant starches are in a form that cannot be broken down by the starch-degrading enzymes released by the human intestines due to either being enclosed by other indigestible fibres or existing in a high-density crystalline form.

Unlike digestible starch, crystalline starch has no gaps for the enzymes to effectively bind.  Beans also have similar fibre components as well as a large portion of raffinose, a simple three-sugar carbohydrate.

Some beans produce specialty fibre materials which are used as thickening agents in product formulation, such as locust bean gum and guar gum.

These gums are commonly used in gluten-free doughs for improve viscosity, as well as ice cream to enhance texture quality.

Fruits are an important source of lignin, as well as pectin, which is used as a gelling agent to produce jams, jellies, and marmalades.

Marine products are also a rich source of fibre ingredients.  Carrageenan, agar, and alginic acid are all soluble fibres with gelling properties traditionally extracted from sea algae.

Chitin and chitosan are non-plant fibres both sourced from the hard shells of marine crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters, and shrimp.

Inulin, another important fibre used in the industry, is found abundantly in chicory root or Jerusalem artichoke.  Xanthan gum, a thickening agent and stabilizer, is produced from simple sugars using a specific strain of bacteria.

Some dietary fibres are produced synthetically by chemically modifying starches to form another subclass of resistant starches.  These synthetic resistant starches are either chemically linked together across sugar chains or modified at each individual sugar unit to generate food ingredients that cannot be readily broken down by human digestive enzymes.

Other fibres can be chemically or enzymatically modified to change their functional properties as food ingredients.  For example, pectins can be reacted with either ammonia or hydrochloric acid to create semi-soluble fibres that gel at lower sugar concentrations than the parent molecule.

Dietary Fibre for Health

Dietary fibre is a nutrient most people know is beneficial but few people get enough of. Despite research consistently showing a variety of health benefits associated with fiber, less than 10% of people in the US meet dietary recommendations.

When it comes to health, fibres can have many different definitions. They can be categorized as water insoluble, water soluble, viscous, non-viscous, fermentable or prebiotic, to name a few.

The number of different categories speaks to the complexity of these ingredients. Each of these types of fibres can have different behaviours and benefits in our bodies, and the scientific community continues to reveal what these benefits are.

Here are some examples.

• Insoluble fibres, which do not dissolve in water, can serve as bulking agents for stool and contribute to regularity. These are the main fibres associated with digestive health. They are most often found in fruit and vegetable skins, whole wheat, seeds and nuts.
• Soluble fibres dissolve in water and are most known for their association with satiety, heart health, and blood sugar regulation. Studies have shown some soluble fibres can slow the rate food moves through our digestive tract, which can reduce the speed we absorb sugar and also make us feel full for longer. Fibres like beta glucan (mainly found in oats) have been shown to reduce LDL cholesterol, potentially reducing risk of heart disease. Oats, beans, flax seed, and some fruits and vegetables, such as apples, contain soluble fibre.
• Some fibres are also categorized as prebiotic, which means they provide beneficial bacteria in our colon with a source of energy. When these bacteria digest prebiotic fibres, they create metabolites like short chain fatty acids which can have a variety of beneficial effects. Inulin is a widely used prebiotic fibre. For more information on how prebiotic fibres work, read ‘Fiber and Prebiotics: Mechanisms and Health Benefits’ by Dr. Joanne Slavin.

Fibre as a Food Additive

While the health benefits of consuming dietary fibre are clear, consumer perceptions of fibre are still influenced by the sensory characteristics imparted by these ingredients.  In particular, formulators are challenged to include fibre in food products while maintaining consumer acceptability for taste, texture, colour, and aroma.

Several challenges exist for product developers interested in incorporating more dietary fibres into food products.  The physical and chemical behaviour of fibres create a natural constraint for the amount of fibre that can be added to any one product.

For example, acidic foods can cause some fibres to break down into simple sugars over time, which may result in a product that falls short of the regulatory requirements needed for health claims.  Pectins, alginic acids, carrageenans, and guar gum all readily gel in the presence of calcium, which can pose problems when formulating with dairy or other high calcium products.

The taste and texture of a food product are also affected by fibre concentration, as many insoluble fibres can produce a gritty sensation when eaten.  Some prebiotic fibres may cause bloating and discomfort due to the gas produced as a by-product of bacterial digestion.

Fibre and the Future

Designer fibres are increasingly becoming important functional ingredients for incorporating more fibre into food products while maintaining desirable healthful and sensory properties.  Chitosan-coated konjac glucomannan is a hybrid fibre ingredient used to improve the viscosity of foods used for weight reduction (Woodgate 2003).

Resistant glucan and hydrogenated resistant glucan are newly developed soluble fibres composed of glucose that are being studied for their potential role in reducing incidence of metabolic syndrome, the cluster of conditions that contribute to lifestyle diseases (Nakamura 2016).

Several novel processes are currently in development to produce novel resistant starches.

Continued innovation in the dietary fibre space will require an understanding of consumer demand for functional food products balanced with the desire for great taste.

In the past decade, foods like coconut oil and bulletproof coffee have been in the headlines of countless nutrition news articles. One of the most common questions dietitians get asked is “what’s the truth about coconut oil, is it healthy?”.

Scientific studies have shown that consuming certain types of dietary fats can reduce the amount of food eaten later in the day. These dietary fats are known as medium chain triglycerides, or MCTs for short. Coconut oil’s surging popularity in the last decade is partly due to the media promoting coconut oil for weight loss, advocating similar health benefits to that of MCTs.

In this blog, it’s time to take a look at the science behind coconut oil and MCTs. It is based on a study that was carried out with the primary intention to compare the effect of MCT oil to coconut oil on food intake and feelings of hunger, fullness, desire to eat and prospective food intake in healthy subjects.

Here’s a link to the study

The basics on fat

Historically, high-fat diets have long been linked to overweight and obesity. However, new studies are suggesting that certain fats can have a positive influence on weight.

This is because, as we now know, not all fats are the same. There are ‘good’ fats and ‘bad’ fats. This is probably why going totally ‘low fat’ or ‘fat free’ didn’t seem to make us any healthier. When we cut out fat from our diet, we ended up missing out on what are known as good fats and essential fats.

For more information on the type of food or fat to choose, see our blog ‘Does Low-Fat Still Matter?’.

All fats are made up of the same components, but the various structures of different fats give them many different functions within our bodies once consumed.

What are MCTs and how are they different from other fats?

Like we see in the image above, natural dietary fats are made up of fatty acids composed of chains of carbons. Fatty acid lengths can vary from 8 to 22 carbons long; most fatty acids have a carbon length of 14 or more. MCTs are triglycerides that are made up of mostly medium chain fatty acids, which typically have a length between 6 and 12 carbons (Bach and Babayan, 1982). This different structure is what gives MCTs their unique properties.

MCTs have a smaller molecular weight, are most commonly liquid at room temperature and have a lower melting point than other naturally occurring fats found in the food chain. This structure is also what allows MCTs to act in an alternative way to other fats when absorbed by the body, which is discussed below (Bach and Babayan, 1982).

MCTs are naturally found in the food chain in coconut oil, palm kernel oil and dairy fats. They became of interest in the food chain in the 1950’s when studies focused on how fats are absorbed in the body (Nagao and Yanagita, 2010).

Most MCT oil is extracted from tropical oil sources (palm or coconut), filtered and then concentrated (re-esterified). It is thought that this restructuring is key to the effect MCTs have on reducing food intake and weight gain.

How are MCTs absorbed and what does that mean for weight gain?

When we eat and digest most dietary fats, they are absorbed into our bodies in a different way than nutrients like protein or carbohydrates. This is due to fat’s inability to properly mix with water (think oil and vinegar), meaning most fats don’t go directly to the liver like proteins and carbohydrates do. Unlike other fats, however, MCTs do go directly to the liver when consumed due to their unique structure. This allows the body to quickly use these fats as energy, which can then be burnt off by the body through activity, reducing the amount of weight gained. MCTs also contain fewer calories per gram than typical fats (~8.3 calories per gram instead of 9 calories per gram). Other fats consumed are more likely to become fat deposits (adipose tissue) in the body when we eat too many calories due to their alternative absorption method making them less available to be used as energy (Babayan 1987).

This difference in the way our bodies utilize MCTs compared to other naturally occurring fats (Rolls et al, 1988) has been suggested as contributing to the effect of MCTs on contributing to fullness and reducing food intake.

If you want to know about the science of how MCTs are utilized by our bodies, this article is a great reference.

What is the difference between MCT oil and Coconut oil? Does coconut oil live up to the hype?

Most plant-based fats are unsaturated (liquid at room temperature), however coconut oil is a unique plant-based fat in that it is made up of 92% saturated fat. Although most of the fat in coconut oil would be considered to be MCTs, the fatty acid found in these MCTs are longer than most other MCTs. Due to this length, the absorption of coconut oil differs from that of MCT oil. Only a small percent (20%-30%) of coconut oil is absorbed through the liver and readily available to be burned off as energy by the body, where as 95% of MCT oil derived from other sources is absorbed this way (Denke and Grundly, 1992).

As a result, the evidence around whether coconut oil can be promoted as a way to help with weight or appetite regulation varies. The results of this recent study and previous studies (St-Onge and Bosarge, 2008), show that MCT oil has beneficial effects for reducing obesity through reducing food intake and increasing fullness compared to coconut oil (Mumme and Stonehouse 2015). The way MCTs achieve this effect is still being explored, but one possible explanation is the rapid rate we absorb them.

With fat gaining popularity with consumers, there may be many opportunities to add fat back into products. It’s important to make sure these fats are from a healthy source and the calorie content of foods is still not too high. Even too many healthy fats can contribute to weight gain.  If you want to add fat to a product to improve satiety or help weight management, the best bet would be to use MCT oil rather than coconut oil.