Whether it’s preparing for a family, going through pregnancy, or breastfeeding, motherhood is a transformative time in a woman’s life.  Such an intricate journey is filled with moments of anticipation, joy, and connection.  But it can also include challenges and health considerations that require thoughtful attention and care.  The link between a mother’s health and their infant’s wellbeing has created a strong consumer demand for products targeting conception, pregnancy, and breastfeeding.  Of recent launches in the Women’s Supplements Market, 38% were related to pregnancy and/or fertility ¹.

The fertility stage is oftentimes the gateway to family living.  Around 186 million individuals live with infertility worldwide, at times leading to feelings of guilt, fear, and self-blame ².  Support, whether from healthcare professionals, family, and/or friends, is key to helping people navigate the complexities of the fertility journey with dignity, resilience, and hope.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) affects an estimated 6 – 13% of women, with up to 70% of cases being undiagnosed.  Around 40% of all female fertility disorders are due to ovulatory disorders ³, with 85% of these linked to PCOS ⁴.  Considering PCOS causes one in three cases of female infertility and affects 6 – 13% of women of reproductive age, there’s demand for naturally derived, science-backed solutions to help promote fertility for those living with PCOS ⁵.

The mechanism behind infertility associated with PCOS is one that is still being explored due to the number of factors that can contribute to this condition.

However, it is evident from the research that one of the main factors that impact this condition is insulin resistance.  This insulin resistance has a direct effect on Myo-inositol (MI) to D-Chiro-Inositol (DCI) conversion, ultimately causing a DCI deficiency.  This deficiency can lead to hyperinsulinemia, i.e., high levels of insulin, which can cause an overstimulation of the ovary to produce testosterone. i.e., hyperandrogenism, which in turn causes anovulation. In parallel to this, there is a MI deficiency in the ovary which leads to poor oocyte maturation.  This is because MI is involved oocyte maturation.  This together with anovulation can contribute to infertility associated with PCOS.

Biosynthesis of myoinositol (MI) occurs endogenously, primarily in the kidney, with a rate approaching 4g per day.  The conversion rate of MI to D-chiro-inositol (DCI) ranges from 3% to about 9% ⁶.  In women suffering PCOS, they have a systemic deficiency of DCI ^7,8.  Consequently, the level of DCI in tissues can decrease significantly.  On the contrary, the situation seems to be different in the ovary, where there is a deficiency of MI ⁹.  Therefore, women experiencing PCOS have DCI deficiency at a systemic level and MI deficiency at the ovary level.

To tackle both deficiencies, varying combinations of MI and DCI have been researched.  For instance, a ratio 40:1 MI:DCI taken by healthy women resulted in better clinical results that the use of MI or DCI alone ^10,11.   Interestingly, a clinical trial comparing the benefits of a MI:DCI ratio at 3.6:1 versus ratio 40:1 showed significantly better results in the MI:DCI 3.6:1 group with almost four times more live births than the 40:1 MI:DCI group ¹².  Furthermore, a MI:DCI 3.6:1 ratio has multi-dimensional benefits to women with PCOS such as regularizing menstrual cycles and improving insulin resistance, hormonal, glycaemic, and lipid profiles, with considerable efficacy and tolerability ^12-15.

Pregnancy

Pregnancy is a time of incredible change for women as their bodies prepare to nurture a new life.  A mother’s health becomes paramount as her well-being and that of her baby is intricately connected.  Emotional health is equally important during this time, as hormonal changes bring about a variety of feelings, from joy and excitement to anxiety and mood swings.  A strong support network is crucial to help expecting mothers navigate the changes and challenges with strength and confidence.

A well-balanced diet of good quality carbohydrates, proteins, specific fatty acids, vitamins and minerals is essential to support changes to the mother’s body and for optimal growth and development of the baby ¹⁶.  It is also important that mothers are aware of the foods that must be avoided during pregnancy including unpasteurized dairy foods, soft cheeses, raw meat and fish, and alcohol ¹⁶.  Mothers’ diets have also been found to influence a baby’s health into adulthood, with good prenatal nutrition reducing the risk of heart disease, diabetes and high blood pressure in adulthood.

Interestingly, a study reported that up to 92% of pregnant women reported taking prenatal vitamins and/or other supplements ¹⁷.  Some of the most popular supplements are folic acid, which is essential for preventing neural tube defects in the developing foetus, and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which is key for cognitive, eye and heart development.  Omega-3 DHA fatty acids are critical for the development of the baby’s brain and eyes, reduces the risk of preterm birth, supports maternal health, and contributes to healthy birth weight.

Breastfeeding

From conception to their second birthday, babies’ first 1,000 days of life are a critical window for good nutrition and infant wellbeing.  During this time, a baby’s gut and immune system develop rapidly as they move from a protected environment to one exposed to many immune challenges.

Breastfeeding is a journey that fosters a unique bond between mother and baby.  Regarded as the gold standard of infant nutrition, it offers a host of extraordinary benefits for both mother and baby.  A nutrient-rich diet and good hydration is vital for breastfeeding mothers, especially for those who are exclusively breastfeeding as they generally need an extra 300 – 500kcal per day ¹⁶.

However, it is important to understand that every mother’s situation is unique, and breastfeeding comes with its own challenges, which means it isn’t always possible.  Acknowledging these challenges openly helps to create a more supportive environment that equips mothers with the tools they need to best care for themselves and their babies.

One of the main medical reasons for women stopping breastfeeding is mastitis.  According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), up to 30% of lactating women suffer from mastitis ¹⁸.  Through extensive research, intake of a probiotic strain isolated from woman breastmilk, Lactobacillus fermentum CECT 5716, promoted breast health and comfort.  This, in turn, prevented premature cessation of breastfeeding due to pain, by reducing mastitis pain symptoms and the incidence or recurrence of mastitis ^19-21.

Summary

Addressing fertility and health challenges for women requires a multifaceted approach that includes dietary and lifestyle modifications.  Emerging research underscores the powerful role of nutrition in managing the key drivers of PCOS.  Incorporating nutrient-rich foods, maintaining a balanced macronutrient intake, and adopting sustainable dietary patterns can empower women to improve their fertility outcomes.  As science continues to advance, personalized nutrition strategies show promise for tailoring solutions to individual needs, offering hope for those navigating fertility challenges.  Supporting women on this journey is not just about dietary choices; it’s about fostering overall health and well-being for the future.

The appetite for new plant-based foods shows no sign of slowing down. Consumers are demanding more from meat and dairy alternatives, which has accelerated innovation in this category, creating a diverse market with a variety of formats to choose from. Food-technology is advancing rapidly to catch up with the pace of the market, providing novel solutions to taste, texture and nutrition. With 10 billion people to feed sustainably by 2050, the plant-based journey is only beginning.

In this webinar, our experts dive into the challenges and opportunities for future innovation in the ever-evolving plant-based market by answering questions such as:

1. How has the plant-based market changed and what might the future look like?
2. Who are the movers / shakers and disrupters to watch in the plant-based arena?
3. What opportunities for plant based have emerged with advances in food technology & processing?
4. What are the key technical challenges when innovating plant-based foods?
5. What does successful plant-based innovation look like?

Watch the full recording.

Growth and development relies on good nutrition

Growing from a child into an adult involves much more than we can see with our own eyes. Kids are constantly growing taller and stronger, which we can see, but also developing their senses, cognitive capabilities, or their blood volume is expanding to fuel a growing body. All of these processes require nutrients to serve as building blocks or signals for growth. Calcium becomes part of growing bones, while zinc and iodine support development of the brain and nervous system, for example.

Generation Z has unique nutrition needs

Since children and adolescents are growing and developing so rapidly, they have demanding nutrient needs that are different from those of adults. Teenagers require up to 67% more daily iodine than children, and both children and teenagers have higher protein requirements relative to their body weight than many adults.

This white paper describes the unique nutrition needs of children and teenagers, and explores how to address these unique needs.

Download the full white paper for free here.

Read on…download the full paper for free here.

What is a treat to children from adults’ perspectives?

So what is a treat? According to the dictionary, a treat is “an event or item that is out of the ordinary and gives great pleasure”. This definition mentions two key elements: low frequency and pleasure. According to the study, adults’ definition of treats for children is slightly different. They think treats for children are primarily something ‘nice’ (45.2%), ‘deserved/earned’ (35.1%) and ‘special’ (32.7%). It is worth noting that 17% of adults think that treats for children must be ‘healthy’.

Percentage of adults who selected a given term to define a ‘treat’ for children

When do adults give treat foods to children?

The study shows that nearly all adults (92.0%) would provide treat foods to children at celebrations. Just think about those celebrative occasions, Easter, Halloween, Christmas, birthdays, weddings, the last day of school, the end of a sports season, the anniversary of a pet joining the family… the list goes on. It is easy to imagine that the totality of all these occasions can be huge for some children. Therefore, as some scholars suggest, the health impact of treat foods consumed at celebration should be well recognised.

In addition, around two thirds of the adults, especially parents, have routinized daily or weekly treat foods for children. It could be after-school treats, after-dinner treats, Friday treats, weekend treats and so on. Adults also provide treats for some particular reasons (see the figure below). Rewarding good behaviour and child’s requests are the two biggest triggers.

Percentage of adults who would give treat foods to children for a given reason

What kind of foods do adults use as treats for children?

In general, adults’ treat foods for children are dominated by less healthy options that come to mind when thinking of the word ‘treat’. Sweets, chocolates, and ice cream/ice lollies are the most popular treats. In comparison, some healthy foods including fruits, fruit juice, berries, and dried fruit are less likely used as treats for children.

For details of this study, please visit https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S019566631830535X 

What does this study mean?

From a consumer science and public health science point of view, this study leaves me with two key takeaways:

• For today’s children, treat foods have become normalised into their lives and are frequently included in their diets. It is not the same treat that previous generations would think of when they hear the word. It would be naïve to think, in modern society, that the use of treat foods can be avoided or dramatically reduced. Thus children related public health initiatives should not ignore treat foods.
• The popularity of ‘unhealthy’ foods as treats for children echoes a trend for indulgence observed at the IFT’s Food Expo: in some situations, consumers are not willing to give up the sensory pleasure for healthy purposes. Treat food occasions are such situations where for parents, and other child care providers, indulgence is more important than health concerns. Can a healthier alternative to sweets and chocolate become as appealing a treat to children? This is a good question that food innovators can possibly address.
• Since treat frequency seems to be increasing, it becomes more important to produce healthy treats to improve the health of children. This can include incorporating fruit and vegetable servings into treats, marketing healthier foods with a ‘treat’ perspective to improve perception of these foods, and reducing total calories and sugar in treat foods.

Infants and toddlers are rapidly growing and developing, and have unique nutrition needs as a result. Despite many products existing that target the health of infants and toddlers, there have been gaps in understanding which nutrients this age group needs more of in their diet. A study in the Journal of Nutrition helps improve understanding of nutrient intakes for children under 48 months old. Overall, the diets of infants and children are mostly adequate, but there are a few nutrients which could be increased in their diets.

Infants (0-12 months old)

Nutrient intakes of infants look excellent until table foods start to predominate the diet (around 12 months). As infants get closer to 1 year old, similarities to diets of adults begin to appear. Infants begin getting too much of sodium and not enough fiber, vitamin D, vitamin E. Almost 1 in 5 older infants (6-12 months) do not get enough iron. Many infants exceeded daily requirements for zinc and vitamin A. The authors mention part of this can be due to supplement use, but also that the dietary recommendations for vitamin A and Zinc may need to be revisited.

Toddlers (1-2 years old)

Toddlers do well when it comes to getting enough vitamin A, B vitamins, vitamin C, magnesium, and phosphorous. For children over 1 year of age, it appears to be difficult to meet vitamin D requirements without the use of a supplement. About half of toddlers were below the recommended daily vitamin E intake, and many exceeded sodium recommendations. For the most part, the trends seen in later infancy continue on into 1-2 years of age.

Preschoolers (2-4 years old)

Preschoolers typically get enough vitamin A, calcium, and iron despite these being nutrients of concern in later life stages like adolescence. Potassium, fiber, and vitamin D are still a challenge for children to consume enough of, which makes sense given these are nutrients US adults lack in their diets.

By targeting the specific nutrients this age group needs in diet recommendations and product formulation, we can help overcome dietary challenges that start at the beginning of life, but often continue into adulthood.

The study article includes full tables on nutrient intakes for younger infants, older infants, and toddlers.

Most of us eat do not eat enough wholegrains to get the health benefits from the whole range of nutrients they contain such as fiber, B vitamins, essential fatty acids, protein, antioxidants and other micronutrients with health benefits.  In a recent observational study, researchers measured associations between whole grain intake and health in children. The researchers found that higher whole grain consumption was associated with lower serum insulin (one of a few markers used to measure metabolic health) in the population of 8- to 11-y-old Danish children. Furthermore, whole grain oat intake was linked to improved measures of fat mass, systolic blood pressure, LDL cholesterol, and serum insulin. In other words, whole grain oat consumption may protect cardiovascular health and decrease diabetes risk in children.

There are many challenges in getting kids to eat whole grains, such as taste and texture. Identifying innovative ways to deliver whole grain servings in convenient, tasty ways to kids becomes increasingly important as the evidence for health benefits piles up. Parents can also help their kids eat healthier through modeling behavior, which is discussed in our blog Turning Fussy Young Eaters into Foodies.

Nutrients to achieve linear growth

Linear growth occurs throughout childhood and adolescence and is mostly seen as increase in height and muscle mass. There are some periods of growth during this time that are particularly rapid. If critical periods of growth are affected, such as by not providing enough energy or building blocks required by the body to fuel this growth, permanent stunting or lifelong low bone mineral density can occur. The consequences can include lifelong increased risk of overweight/obesity and bone fractures.

An average 2-year-old boy’s height typically doubles and weight increases 5 times that of his starting weight by 20 years of age (CDC Growth Chart for Boys Age 2 to 20 years).

Protein and calories are building blocks that support rapid linear growth of muscle and tissues and also support healthy body composition (lean muscle versus body fat). Providing adequate calories allows protein to be used for growing body tissues. Getting too many calories leads to overweight and obesity, which persists in adult years. More than three out of four obese kids grow up to be obese adults (Freedman, 2001).

Protein needs to be adequate in quantity as well as quality by providing the nine essential amino acid building blocks. Dairy and egg protein sources are gold standards when it comes to protein quality. Generally, animal and soy are complete proteins, but plant proteins can provide a complete complement of amino acids when paired appropriately. Children and teens restricting animal protein foods need to be extra vigilant to consume foods that will help them meet their essential amino acid needs, as well as other nutrients present in animal foods (like calcium, iron, zinc and choline).

Calcium and vitamin D support linear bone growth and build bone density. Up to 90% of peak bone density is achieved by 18-20 years of age (National Institute of Health, 2015). For the rest of a person’s life, the body relies on bone as a reserve to draw on in times of need. This means that if children and teens don’t consume enough calcium and vitamin D during this time of peak bone growth, they are at a higher risk of osteoporosis because less has been stored in the bone for use in later years.

Iron is an essential part of red blood cells that deliver oxygen throughout the body, including active muscles and the brain. As the body grows, blood volume expands to keep pace. Moreover, for adolescent girls, menstruation more than doubles demand for iron to replace blood losses.

Zinc is a metabolic facilitator supporting numerous processes associated with growth, sexual maturation, and immunity (Institute of Medicine, 2001; Caulfield, 2004). In many regions of the world, both iron and zinc intakes are inadequate due to limited availability of food sources of these nutrients. This is typically the case when meat availability is limited, since plant sources of iron and zinc are not as available to be absorbed by the body due to factors such as dietary inhibitors, like phytate (a so-called ‘anti-nutrient’ that binds minerals in the digestive tract), found in many plants.

Nutrients to achieve cognitive and sensory development

As with linear growth, nutrients serve as both structural building blocks and as regulating factors in developing cognitive and sensory systems. Key nutrients are highlighted here, but many other nutrients are essential for health.

Iodine is required to synthesize hormones in the thyroid gland that are especially important for the developing brain.

Zinc is an essential facilitator for dozens reactions that regulate growth, so it is no surprise that zinc is involved in cognitive development. Supplementation in high-risk young children is not supported by evidence for improving cognitive outcomes, so preventing deficiency is key (Gogia, 2012).

Iron plays a direct role in the nervous system. Moreover, iron-deficiency is associated with fatigue and impaired immunity, which may affect school attendance and ability to perform at school. Emphasizing dietary sources of iron, managing dietary inhibitors, and selective fortification combined with disease management continue to be public health priorities.

 

Pregnant women have unique dietary challenges that can be met with tailored solutions

Weight gain during pregnancy impacts maternal health, pregnancy outcomes such as preterm delivery or low birth weight, and child health after delivery. While all women require increased calories during pregnancy, recommended weight gain differs depending on pre-pregnancy weight status; underweight women should gain more weight than normal weight women while overweight and obese women should gain less. Inadequate maternal weight gain potentially harms the health of both mother and child since there may not be enough calories to support proper development in the womb.

Obesity and excess weight gain increase the risk of stillbirth, preterm birth, birth defects, a large baby, and childhood obesity. Health organizations and government agencies around the world, including the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.K. National Health Service, and the Vietnam Ministry of Health, offer guidance to pregnant women on what and how much to eat to manage their weight and nutrition status. Weight gain is typically monitored by a physician, as well.

Vitamin and mineral needs can vary greatly between pre-pregnancy, pregnancy, and lactation and these nutrients can be just as important as calories (see infographic). A carefully chosen diet can meet recommendations for most nutrients, but the diets of pregnant and lactating women often fall short of many of these essential nutrients. This commonly leads to supplement recommendations by physicians, but it is also possible to help women in these life stages meet their dietary needs through targeted product development.

Among the nutrients important to and under-consumed by most pregnant women are folic acid to help protect against neural tube defects, choline for foetal brain and nervous system development, iron for increased maternal and foetal blood volume, and calcium for bone growth and reduced risk of maternal hypertension. Other frequently supplemented nutrients include the fatty acids DHA and EPA, vitamin D, and iodine. Foods which supply these nutrients and also appeal to the unique tastes and values of pregnant women can go a long way in ensuring a healthy mom and baby.

In parts of the world where maternal malnutrition is common, supplementation becomes more critical to ensure proper foetal development during pregnancy. Calorie, protein, vitamin A, and iron may be available in a wide range of forms for pregnant and lactating women e.g. fortified dairy and non-dairy beverages, nutritional milks, nursing teas, and fortified cereals.

Fortification of staple foods with iron and folate can help decrease risk of deficiency at conception, but this type of public health initiative must be targeted to the specific population to determine the ideal fortification levels and mode of delivery. For example, many countries in Latin America fortify wheat or maize flour with iron, while Vietnam chooses to fortify soy sauce and fish sauce.

For the mother, most nutrient needs increase after delivery to support lactation

During lactation, the mother is able to provide all of a child’s nutrient needs via breastfeeding. For optimal health of the infant, the World Health Organization (WHO) and other global health organizations recommend exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months. For the mother, this means that the required intake for many nutrients becomes even greater than during pregnancy – after all, the baby is still totally dependent on the mother for nutrition, but it is now bigger than it has ever been! As a result, it is essential for the mother to eat a balanced diet during this time to ensure both she and her baby are healthy.

For some nutrients, the mother’s body will ensure the breast milk contains enough for the baby even at the risk of depleting her own body’s reserves. These are mostly nutrients that are absolutely essential for proper growth and development of the baby, such as energy, protein, calcium, and zinc. Inadequate intakes by the mother could lead to higher risk of iron deficiency, anaemia or loss of bone mineral density.

For other nutrients, breast milk concentration will vary depending on how much the mother is eating in her diet. Examples include iodine and choline, which are essential for cognitive development of the infant, and most vitamins. The mother is able to deliver more of these nutrients to her baby if she eats more in her own diet, but risks not delivering enough for her baby to properly develop if her own diet is inadequate. This means that to ensure both mother and her baby stay healthy, the importance of proper nutrition does not stop once the baby is delivered.

Although strongly encouraged, breastfeeding may not always be feasible. Infants who are not breast fed should receive an infant formula that resembles human milk as closely as possible. Developments in infant milk formula in recent years allows it to resemble human milk more closely than ever. Read our white paper Delivering Nutrition as Nature Intended to find out more.

Appropriate complementary feeding practices after the first six months support the health of the young child and convey long-term health benefits. For example, adequate calories can help manage weight gain during the first years of life while also lowering the risk of childhood obesity from overfeeding. Choosing foods rich in Vitamin A and iron will help support proper development of the child’s vision, immune system, and physical growth. In developing countries, WHO, UNICEF, and others also recommend supplementation or fortification with multiple micronutrient powders and individual nutrients to reduce infant and child mortality and improve growth and development.

Complementary feeding can be complicated by picky eaters. Read our blog Turning Fussy Young Eaters Into Foodies to learn about the importance of early, frequent exposures of healthy foods for lifelong health.

A child’s first 1,000 days set the course for lifelong health, with mothers in charge of the most important actions:

• • Appropriate weight gain during pregnancy
  • A nutritionally sound diet through pregnancy and lactation, including supplementation when indicated
  • Exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months; if not feasible, selection of an appropriate infant formula
  • Appropriate complementary feeding, including supplementation as directed by health care professionals

Increased nutrient needs aren’t the only challenge for pregnant and lactating women

Despite the importance of a balanced, healthy diet during pregnancy and lactation, these life stages can also be some of the most stressful and hectic years of life. Taking time to plan, shop for, and prepare healthy meals may be unrealistic, making reliance on pre-prepared meals and snacks increasingly common. To help mothers meet the needs of both her and her baby, tailored solutions rich in micronutrients specific to the needs pregnancy or lactation could go a long way in improving health. Foods tailored for pregnant women should emphasize iron and folate, while foods tailored for breastfeeding women could provide more vitamin A and iodine than those targeted at pregnant women.

It is important to remember, though, that both of these life stages have increased nutrient needs compared to women of childbearing age, so all foods targeted toward pregnant or lactating women should be rich in vitamins and minerals.

During infancy, a child is a depletion-driven eater, who consumes only milk and has no desire for other foods.  As the child grows, he or she develops a physiological need for more nutrients and transitions to solid foods.  This is followed by a new stage the when the child attempts to assert his or her independence and to establish some sense of autonomy.

Neophobia, a fear of new foods, usually peaks between the age of two and six and often results in the rejection of new foods, particularly vegetables.  Highly neophobic children tend to have a lower preference for and consumption of fruit and vegetables, however they have a similar intake of noncore foods such as those high in sugar and fat compared to less neophobic children.  Children typically show a stronger neophobic response to vegetables that are less sweet and are therefore less liked than fruit and noncore foods.  Neophobia is a normal part of development but often leads to frustration, anxiety and power struggles between the parent and child.

There is strong evidence to suggest that both the type and variety of foods a child is exposed to by the end of the first year of life will predict their food preferences and dietary quality later in childhood.  For example, exposure to a wider variety of fruit and vegetables at 14 months is linked to an increased intake at 3.7 years (Fildes, 2015).  Similarly, exposure to noncore foods at 14 months was linked to a greater liking of these foods at 3.7 years (Mallan, 2015).  Picky toddlers require up to 15 exposures to novel food items before they will accept them (Lam, 2015).

Literature supports the idea that picky eating is a developmental process for toddlers.  Johnson (2002) described food acceptance patterns and the emergence of eating patterns in relation to physiologic growth, age, and emotional development.

Toddlers are innately programmed to be a bit sceptical of unfamiliar foods and this is what causes them to demonstrate picky eating habits for a period of time (Martins, 2002).  Products targeting toddlers need to take this into account.  Toddlers want autonomy, while parents are looking for healthy food and beverage products with tastes and textures that their toddler enjoys.  Studies suggest that a wide variety of flavours, especially vegetable flavours need to be offered at all stages of weaning and toddlerhood, to increase their acceptance later in life.

Parents can influence the dietary practices of children in at least five different areas:

• • Availability of foods
  • Accessibility of foods
  • Meal structure
  • Adult food modelling
  • Food socialisation practices
  • Food-related parenting style

Childhood feeding practices that pressurise toddlers into eating particular foods can actually have adverse results and ultimately result in a greater disliking of the particular food.  When parents assume control of meal size or attempt to pressurise children to eat, as well as exacerbating picky eating behaviours, it may lead to an inability to respond to self-regulation cues and an increase in distaste for certain foods.  Birch and Fisher (1998) report that children who are highly encouraged or forced to consume foods may not be able to use internal signals of hunger and satiety as a means of adjusting energy intake as readily as other children.  In addition, they found that strategies forcing a child to consume a particular food might actually increase the child’s distaste for that food (Birch & Fisher, 1998).  The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics supports the division of responsibility as follows:

• • Parents are responsible for providing a variety of healthful foods to children and deciding the manner in which these foods are presented
  • Children are responsible for whether and how much they eat

Weaning foods need to encompass a wide variety of foods, tastes and flavours, and should be gradually introduced to the child, increasing their exposure and thereby their acceptance.  Early adoption of variety of foods in the diet can have long-term impact on dietary eating patterns of children, their overall health and nutritional outcomes.